tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-64739867933805811502024-03-12T19:25:47.526-07:00English Lexicology for Students and AllElenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.comBlogger11125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-25369072519985665712011-12-25T08:09:00.000-08:002011-12-25T08:12:26.402-08:00Phraseology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://festival.1september.ru/articles/561960/img5.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://festival.1september.ru/articles/561960/img5.gif" /></a></div>The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith «Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.<br />
Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.<br />
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<b>WAYS OF FORMING PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS</b><br />
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A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units. <br />
Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group :<br />
a) Most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: «launching pad» in its terminological meaning is «стартовая площадка» , in its transferred meaning - «отправной пункт», «to link up» - «cстыковаться, стыковать космические корабли» in its transformed meaning it means -«знакомиться»;<br />
b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming their meaning, e.g. «granny farm» - «пансионат для престарелых», «Troyan horse» - «компьютерная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения компьютера»; <br />
c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration , e.g. «a sad sack» - «несчастный случай», «culture vulture» - «человек, интересующийся искусством», «fudge and nudge» - «уклончивость».<br />
d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections, e.g. «My aunt!», « Hear, hear !» etc<br />
e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. «odds and ends» was formed from «odd ends»,<br />
f) they can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. «in brown study» means «in gloomy meditation» where both components preserve their archaic meanings,<br />
g) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. «that cock won’t fight» can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting ), it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically,<br />
h) they can be formed when we use some unreal image, e.g. «to have butterflies in the stomach» - «испытывать волнение», «to have green fingers» - »преуспевать как садовод-любитель» etc.<br />
i) they can be formed by using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life, e.g. «corridors of power» (Snow), «American dream» (Alby) «locust years» (Churchil) , «the winds of change» (Mc Millan).<br />
Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit; they are:<br />
a) conversion, e.g. «to vote with one’s feet» was converted into «vote with one’s feet»;<br />
b) changing the grammar form, e.g. «Make hay while the sun shines» is transferred into a verbal phrase - «to make hay while the sun shines»;<br />
c) analogy, e.g. «Curiosity killed the cat» was transferred into «Care killed the cat»;<br />
d) contrast, e.g. «cold surgery» - «a planned before operation» was formed by contrasting it with «acute surgery», «thin cat» - «a poor person» was formed by contrasting it with «fat cat»;<br />
e) shortening of proverbs or sayings e.g. from the proverb «You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear» by means of clipping the middle of it the phraseological unit «to make a sow’s ear» was formed with the meaning «ошибаться».<br />
f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans, e.g. « living space» (German), « to take the bull by the horns» ( Latin) or by means of phonetic borrowings «meche blanche» (French), «corpse d’elite» (French), «sotto voce» (Italian) etc.<br />
Phonetic borrowings among phraseological units refer to the bookish style and are not used very often.<br />
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<b>SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS</b><br />
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Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:<br />
According to the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units can be classified into three big groups: phraseological fusions (сращения), phraseological unities (единства) and phraseological collocations (соче¬тания).<br />
Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups, e.g. as mad as a hatter — 'utterly mad'; white elephant — 'an expensive but useless thing'.<br />
Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated as their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit, e.g. to bend the knee — 'to submit to a stronger force, to obey submissively'; to wash one's dirty linen in public — 'to discuss or make public one's quarrels'.<br />
Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically, e.g. to meet the requirements, to attain success. In this group of phraseological units some substitutions are possible which do not destroy the meaning of the metaphoric element, e.g. to meet the needs, to meet the demand, to meet the necessity; to have success, to lose success. These substitutions are not synonymical and the meaning of the whole changes, while the meaning of the verb meet and the noun success are kept intact.<br />
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<b>CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS ACCORDING TO THEIR ORIGIN</b><br />
The consideration of the origin of phraseological units contributes to a better understanding of phraseological meaning. According to their origin all phraseological units may be divided into two big groups: native and borrowed.<br />
The main sources of native phraseological units are:<br />
1) terminological and professional lexics, e.g. physics: center of gravity (центр тяжести), specific weight (удельный вес); navigation: cut the painter (обрубить канат) — 'to become independent', lower one's colours (спустить свой флаг) — 'to yield, to give in'; military sphere:, fall into line (стать в строй) — 'conform with others';<br />
2) British literature, e.g. the green-eyed monster — 'jealousy" (W. Shakespeare); like Hamlet without the prince — 'the most important person at event is absent' (W.Shakespeare); fall on evil days— 'live in poverty after having enjoyed better times' (J.Milton); a sight for sore eyes — 'a person or thing that one is extremely pleased or relieved to see' (J.Swift); how goes the enemy? (Ch. Dickens) — 'what is the time?'; never say die — 'do not give up hope in a difficult situation' (Ch.Dickens);<br />
3) British traditions and customs, e.g. baker's dozen — 'a group of thirteen'. In the past British merchants of bread received from bakers thirteen loaves instead of twelve and the thirteenth loaf was merchants' profit.<br />
4) superstitions and legends, e.g. a black sheep — 'a less successful or more immoral person in a family or a group'. People believed that a black sheep was marked by the devil; the halcyon days — 'a very happy or successful period in the past'. According to an ancient legend a halcyon (зимородок) hatches/grows its fledglings in a nest that sails in the sea and during this period (about two weeks) the sea is completely calm;<br />
5) historical facts and events, personalities, e.g. as well be hanged {or hung) for a sheep as a lamb — 'something that you say when you are going to be punished for something so you decide to do something worse because your punishment will not be any more severe'. According to an old law a person who stole a sheep was sentenced to death by hanging, so it was worth stealing something more because there was no worse punishment; to do a Thatcher — 'to stay in power as prime minister for three consecutive terms (from the former Conservative prime minister Margaret Thatcher)';<br />
6) phenomena and facts of everyday life, e.g. carry coals to Newcastle — 'to take something to a place where there is plenty of it available'. Newcastle is a town in Northern England where a lot of coal was produced; to get out of wood — 'to be saved from danger or difficulty'.<br />
The main sources of borrowed phraseological units are: 1) the Holy Script, e. g. the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing — 'communication in an organization is bad so that one part does not know what is happening in another part'; the kiss of Judas — 'any display of affection whose purpose is to conceal any act of treachery' (Matthew XXVI: 49);<br />
2) ancient legends and myths belonging to different religious or<br />
cultural traditions, e.g. to cut the Gordian knot — 'to deal with a<br />
difficult problem in a strong, simple and effective way' (from the legend<br />
saying that Gordius, king of Gordium, tied an intricate knot and<br />
prophesied that whoever untied it would become the ruler of Asia. It<br />
was cut through with a sword by Alexander the Great); a Procrustean<br />
bed — 'a harsh, inhumane system into which the individual is fitted by<br />
force, regardless of his own needs and wishes' (from Greek Mythology.<br />
Procrustes — a robber who forced travelers to lie on a bed and made<br />
them fit by stretching their limbs or cutting off the appropriate length<br />
of leg);<br />
3) facts and events of the world history, e.g. to cross the Rubicon — 'to do something which will have very important results which cannot be changed after'. Julius Caesar started a war which resulted in victory for him by crossing the river Rubicon in Italy; to meet one's Waterloo — 'be faced with, esp. after previous success, a final defeat, a difficulty or obstacle one cannot overcome (from the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo 1815)';<br />
4) variants of the English language, e.g. a heavy hitter— 'someone who is powerful and has achieved a lot' {American); a hole card — 'a secret advantage that is ready to use when you need it' (American); be home and hosed — 'to have completed something successfully' (Australian);<br />
5) other languages (classical and modern), e.g. second to none —<br />
'equal with any other and better than most' (from Latin: nulli<br />
secundus); for smb's fair eyes — 'because of personal sympathy, not<br />
be worth one's deserts, services, for nothing' (from French: pour les<br />
beaux yeux de qn.); the fair sex — 'women' (from French: le beau sex);<br />
let the cat out of the bag — 'reveal a secret carelessly or by mistake'<br />
(from German: die Katze aus dem Sack lassen); tilt at windmills —<br />
'to waste time trying to deal with enemies or problems that do no exist'<br />
(from Spanish: acometer molinos de viento); every dog is a lion at<br />
home — 'to feel significant in the familiar surrounding' (from Italian:<br />
ogni сапе e leone a casa sua).<br />
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<b>STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS</b><br />
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Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.<br />
Among one-top units he points out three structural types;<br />
a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;<br />
b) units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositons with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre;<br />
c) prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs , that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc. <br />
Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:<br />
a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others.<br />
b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.<br />
Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.<br />
c) phraseological repetitions, such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly).<br />
Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock and barrel, to be a shadow of one’s own self, at one’s own sweet will.<br />
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<b>SYNTACTICAL CLASSIFICATION</b><br />
<b>OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS</b><br />
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Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:<br />
a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,<br />
b) verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to make headlines,<br />
c) adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead,<br />
d) adverb phraseological units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog with two tails,<br />
e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,<br />
f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.<br />
In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;"><b>PRACTICAL</b></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Analyze the meaning of the given phraseological units. Group them into: 1) native; 2) borrowed phraseological units. State the sources of their origin. </b><br />
Model: the be-all and end-all of — 'the main purpose of, all that mal in the life'<br />
The phraseological unit the be-all and end-all of is of native English origin: as it is from W.Shakespeare's Macbeth.<br />
1) to hang up one's boot — 'retire'; 2) to bury the hatchet — come to friendly or peaceful terms with somebody else, usually arguments, disagreements'; 3) a sacred cow — 'somebody/something that is greatly respected and revered, esp. by a particular nation or group so that attack or criticism is not tolerated'; 4) a whipping boy — person who is blamed or punished for the faults or incompetence others'; 5) an ugly duckling — 'a plain, unprepossessing child born I attractive than his brothers and sisters who later surpasses them, grows into a beautiful person'; 6) of the same leaven/batch — 'about person who have very much in common, who are very similar in their way life, behaviour, views, etc.'; 7) the law of the jungle — 'self-preservation, the survival of the strongest, or more unscrupulous'; 8) an apple of discord— '(somebody or something that is) a cause of dispute, argument or rivalry'; 9) to hide one's head in the sand — 'willfully to close one's eyes to danger, to refuse to face reality'; 10) a blue stocking — 'an intellectual or literary woman'; 11) the hot seat — 'the position of a person who carries full responsibility for something, including facing criticism or being answerable for decisions or actions'; 12) a drop in the bucket/ocean — 'something of inconsiderable value, importance, esp. as compared with something larger in total or in kind; 13) pig in the middle — 'a person, or a group in a helpless position between, or made use of by, others'; 14) blue blood — 'a person of noble birth': 15) a blue coat — 'a student at a charity school'; 16) to die with one's boots on — 'to die while still at work'; 17) to fiddle while Rome burns — 'behave frivolously in a situation that calls for concern or corrective action'; 18) penny wise and pound foolish — 'careful and economical in small matters while being wasteful or extravagant in large ones';<br />
19) the iron curtain — 'the notional barrier between people, nations, countries, etc. leading to the political, economical, etc. isolation';<br />
the Russian soul — 'a vague, unfulfilled yearning for a better, spiritual life which would bring consolation and relief to the suffering masses'; 21) to run the gauntlet — 'to submit to a punishing ordeal'.<br />
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<b>Choose the correct phraseological unit to fill in the gaps in the sentences below:</b><br />
Dark horse, to work like a dog, sour grapes, to lord it over, Achilles heel, to put one’s cards on the table, red tape, to see smb in the flesh, fat cats, around the clock<br />
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1. Workers are losing their jobs while the … who run the company are getting richer. 2. Stuart’s getting married? He’s a … - I never even knew he had a girlfriend. 3. He was a gifted businessman, but greed was his … . 4. If I criticize her book, people will think it’s just… . 5. There’s so much … involved in getting a visa. 6. Doctors and nurses worked … to help people injured in the train crash. 7. She thought it was time … and tell him that she had no intention of marrying him. 8. He likes … the more junior stuff in the office. 9. I knew his face so well from the photos that it felt a bit strange when I finally … . 10. He … all day to finish the wallpapering. </div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><br />
</i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i>(I.V. Zykova. A practical course of English lexicology, 2006)</i></div></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-41375018831712688352011-12-25T07:56:00.000-08:002011-12-25T09:52:36.466-08:00Etymology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://poster.4teachers.org/imgFileWizard/33774.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://poster.4teachers.org/imgFileWizard/33774.gif" width="191" /></a></div><b>Etymological Survey of the Modern English Language.</b><br />
According to the origin, the word-stock may be subdivided into two main groups: one comprises the native elements; the other consists of the borrowed words.<br />
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<b>Native Words</b><br />
The term native denotes words which belong to the original English stock known from the earliest manuscripts of the Old English period. They are mostly words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles in the 5th century by Germanic tribes.<br />
Linguists estimate the Anglo-Saxon stock of words as 25-30 per cent of the English vocabulary. The native word-stock includes the words of Indio-European origin and the words of Common Germanic origin. They belong to very important semantic groups.<br />
The words of Indio-European origin (that is those having cognates in other I-E. languages) form the oldest layer. They fall into definite semantic groups:<br />
terms of kinship: father, mother, son, daughter, brother;<br />
words denoting the most important objects and phenomena of <br />
nature: sun, moon, star, water, wood, hill, stone, tree;<br />
names of animals and birds: bull, cat, crow, goose, wolf;<br />
parts of human body: arm, eye, foot, heart;<br />
the verbs: bear, come, sit, stand, etc;<br />
the adjectives: hard, quick, slow, red, white.<br />
Most numerals belong here.<br />
The words of the Common Germanic stock, i.e. words having cognates in German, Norwegian, Dutch and other Germanic languages are more numerous. This part of the native vocabulary contains a great number of semantic groups. Examples:<br />
the nouns are: summer, winter, storm, ice, rain, group, bridge, <br />
house, shop, room, iron, lead, cloth, hat, shirt, shoe, care, <br />
evil, hope, life, need, rest;<br />
the verbs are: bake, burn, buy, drive hear, keep, learn, make, meet, <br />
rise, see, send, shoot, etc;<br />
the adjectives are: broad, dead, deaf, deep.<br />
Many adverbs and pronouns belong to this layer, though small in number (25-30 per cent of the vocabulary).<br />
The Common Germanic words and the verbs of the Common Indo-European stock form the bulk of the most frequent elements used in any style of speech. They constitute not less than 80 per cent of the most frequent words listed in E.L. Thorndike and I. Lorge`s dictionary “The Teacher`s Wordbook of 30,000 Words, N.Y.1959, p.268).<br />
Investigation shows that the Anglo-Saxon words in Modern English must be considered very important due to the following characteristics. All of them belong to very important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs (shall, will, should, would, must, can, may, etc.), pronouns (I. he, you, his, who, whose, etc.), prepositions (in. out, on, under), numerals (one, two) and conjunctions (and, but). Notional words of native (Anglo-Saxon) origin include such groups as words denoting parts of the body, family, relations, natural phenomena and planets, animals, qualities and properties, common actions, etc.<br />
Most of native words are polysemantic (man, head, go, etc.) <br />
Most of them are stylistically neutral.<br />
They possess wide lexical and grammatical valency, many of them enter a number of phraseological units.<br />
Due to the great stability and semantic peculiarities the native words possess great word-building power.<br />
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<b>Borrowings (Loan Words)</b><br />
A borrowed (loan) word is a word adopted from another language and modified in sound form, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of English.<br />
According to Otto Jespersen loan-words are “the milestones of philology, because in a great many instances they permit us to fix approximately the dates of linguistic changes”. But they may be termed “the milestones of general history” because they show the course of civilization and give valuable information as to the inner life of nations.<br />
Through its history the English language came in contact with many languages and borrowed freely from them. The greatest influx of borrowings mainly came from Latin, French and Old Norse (Scandinavian). Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse and French (its Norman dialect) were the languages of the conquerors: the Scandinavians invaded the British Isles and merged with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the 11th century. After the Norman Conquest in 1066 Norman French was the language of the upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century.<br />
Etymologically the English vocabulary is said to have a particularly mixed character. Therefore some linguists (L.P.Smith, I.H.Bradley) consider foreign influence to be the most important factor in the history of English. Other linguists (Ch.Hockett, J.A.Sheard) and our linguists, on the contrary, point out the stability of the grammar and phonetic system of the English Language and consider it necessary to examine the volume and role and the comparative importance of native and borrowed elements in the development of the English vocabulary.<br />
The greatest number of borrowings has come from French. Borrowed words refer to various fields of social-political, scientific and cultural life. About 41 per cent of them are scientific and technical terms.<br />
L.P.Smith calls English «half-sister» to the Romance languages.<br />
The number and character of borrowings depend on many factors: on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of the contacts and also on the genetic and structural proximity of languages concerned. The closer the language the deeper and more versatile is the influence. Thus, from the Scandinavian languages, which were closely related to Old Eng¬lish, some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages: the personal pro¬nouns: they, their, them; also same, till, though, fro (adv).<br />
Sometimes words were borrowed to fill in gaps in the vocabulary. Thus, the English borrowed Latin, Greek, Spanish words paper, tomato, potato when these vegetables were first brought to England and because the English vocabulary lacked words for denoting these new objects.<br />
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech. Oral borrowings took place chiefly in the early periods of history, in recent times, written borrowings did. Words borrowed orally (L. Street, mill, inch) are usually short and undergo more changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings (e.g. French communi¬que, belles-letres, naivete) preserve their spelling, they are often rather long and their assimilation is a long process.<br />
The terms «source of borrowing» and «origin of borrowing» should be distinguished. The first denotes the language from which the loan was taken into English. The second denotes the language to which the word may be traced:<br />
E.g. paper <fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""> Words like paper, pepper, etc. are often called by specialists in the history of the language «much-travelled words» which came into English passing through several other languages and not by means of direct bor¬rowing.<br />
Though the borrowed words always undergo changes in the proc-ess of borrowing, some of them preserve their former characteristics for a long period. This enables us to recognize them as the borrowed element. Examples are:<br />
the initial position of the sounds [v], [d], [z] is a sign that the word is not native: vacuum (Lat), valley (FR.), volcano (Ital.), vanilla(Sp.), etc;<br />
may be rendered by «g» and «j» gem (Lat), gemma, jewel (O. Fr.), jungle (Hindi), gesture (Lat), giant (O.Fr.), genre, gendarme (Fr.);<br />
the initial position of the letters «x», «j» «z» is a sign that the word is a borrowed one: zeal (Lat), zero (Fr.), zinc (Gr.), xylophone (Gr.);<br />
the combinations ph, kh, eau in the root: philology (Gr.), khaki (Indian), beau (Fr.); «ch» is pronounced [k] in words of Greek origin: echo, school, [S] in late French borrowings: machine, parachute; and [tS] in native words and early borrowings.<br />
The morphological structure of the word may also betray the for-eign origin of the latter: e.g. the suffix in violencello (Ital.) polysyllabic words is numerous among borrowings: government, condition, etc.<br />
Another feature is the presence of prefixes: ab-, ad-, con-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, per-, pre-, pro-, re-, trans- /such words often contain bound stems.<br />
The irregular plural forms: beaux/from beau (Fr), data/from datum (Lat).<br />
The lexical meaning of the word: pagoda (Chinese).</fr.><br />
<fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""><br />
<b>Assimilation of Borrowings</b><br />
Assimilation of borrowings is a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical or morphological standards of the receiving lan¬guage and its semantic structure.<br />
Since the process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in sound-form, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and usage, three types of assimilation are distinguished: phonetic, gram¬matical and lexical assimilation of borrowed words.<br />
Phonetic assimilation comprises changes in sound form and stress. Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme of sounds. For instance, the long [e] in recent French bor¬rowings are rendered with the help of [ei:] cafe, communiquй, ballet; the consonant combinations pn, ps in the words pneumonia, psychology of Greek origin were simplified into [n] and [s] since pn and ps never occur in the initial position in native English words. In many words (especially borrowed from French and Latin) the accent was gradually transferred to the first syllable: honour, reason began to be stressed like father, brother.<br />
Grammatical assimilation. As a rule, borrowed words lost their former grammatical categories and influence and acquired new grammati¬cal categories and paradigms by analogy with other English words, as for example: the Russian borrowing 'sputnik' acquired the paradigm sputnik, sputnik's, sputniks, sputniks` having lost the inflections it has in the Russian language.<br />
Lexical assimilation. When a word is taken into another language its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes. Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings. For ex¬ample the word 'cargo' which is highly polysemantic in Spanish, was bor¬rowed only in one meaning - «the goods carried in a ship». In the recipient language a borrowing sometimes acquires new meanings. E.g. the word 'move' in Modern English has developed the meaning of 'propose', 'change one's flat', 'mix with people' and others that the corresponding French word does not possess.<br />
There are other changes in the semantic structure of borrowed words: some meanings become more general, others more specialized, etc. For instance, the word 'umbrella' was borrowed in the meaning of 'sunshade' or ' parasole'(from Latin ' ombrella- ombra-shade').<br />
Among the borrowings in the English word-stock there are words that are easily recognized as foreign (such as decollete, Zeitgeist, graff to and there are others that have become so thoroughly assimilated that it is ex¬tremely difficult to distinguish them from native English words.(There words like street, city, master, river).<br />
Unassimilated words differ from assimilated words in their pronun¬ciation, spelling, semantic structure, frequency and sphere of application. However there is no distinct borderline between the two groups. Neither are there more or less comprehensive criteria for determining the degree of assimilation. Still it is evident that the degree of assimilation depends on the length of the time the word has been used in the receiving language, on its importance and its frequency and the way of borrowing (words borrowed orally are assimilated more completely and rapidly than those adopted through writing). According to the degree of assimilation three groups of borrowings can be suggested: completely assimilated bor¬rowings, partially assimilated borrowings and unassimilated borrow¬ings or barbarisms.<br />
The third group is not universally recognized, the argument being that barbarisms occur in speech only and not enter the language.<br />
I. Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers of older borrowings: the first layer of Latin borrowings (cheese, street, wall, and wing); Scandinavian borrowings (fellow, gate, to call, to die, to take, to <br />
want, happy, ill, low, wrong); early French borrowings (table, chair, finish, matter, dress, large, easy, common, to allow, to carry, to cry, to consider).<br />
The number of completely assimilated words is many times greater than the number of partly assimilated ones. They follow all morphologi¬cal, phonetical and orthographic standards.<br />
II. The partly (partially) assimilated words can be subdivided<br />
into groups:<br />
a). Borrowed words not assimilated phonetically: e.g. machine, cartoon, police (borrowed from French) keep the accent on the final syl¬lable; bourgeois, mйlange contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standard for the English language and do not occur in native words ([ wa:],the nasalazed [a]);<br />
b). Borrowed words not completely assimilated graphically. This group is fairly large and variegated. These are, for instance, words bor¬rowed from French in which the final consonants are not pronounced: e.g. ballet, buffet, corps. French digraphs (ch, qu, ou, ete) may be re¬tained in spelling: bouquet, brioche.<br />
c). Borrowed words not assimilated grammatically, for example, nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek which keep their original forms: crisis-crises, formula-formulae, phenomenon-phenomena.<br />
d). Borrowed words not assimilated semantically because they de-note objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come: sombrero, shah, sheik, rickchaw, sherbet, etc.<br />
III. The so-called barbarisms are words from other languages used<br />
by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any<br />
way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents, e.g.: Italian<br />
'ciao' ('good-bye'), the French 'affiche' for 'placard', 'carte blanche'<br />
('freedom of action'), 'faux pas' ('false step').<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Translation Loans and Semantic Loans</b><br />
Alongside loan words proper there are translation loans (or calques) and semantic loans.<br />
Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language, but according to pat¬terns, taken from other languages, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation. One of the earliest calques in the vocabulary of the English language is 'Gospel' (OE god-spell-'евангелие' literally 'благая весть') which is an exact reproduction of the etymological structure of the Greek euggelion, ' благая весть', borrowed into English through Latin. Other examples are: 'mother tongue* from Latin 'lingua materna' (родной язык), 'it goes without saying' from French 'cela va sans dire' (само собой разумеется).<br />
The number of translation loans from German is rather large:<br />
'chain-smoker' from 'Kettenrauchen' (заядлый курильщик);<br />
'world famous' from 'weltberuhmt' (всемирно известный);<br />
'God's acre' from 'Gottesacker' (кладбище literally божье по¬ле);<br />
'masterpiece' from 'Meisterstuk'(шедевр); <br />
'Swan song' from 'Schwanengesang' (лебединая песня); <br />
'superman' from 'Ubermensoh' (сверхчеловек); <br />
'wonder child' from 'Wunderkind'.<br />
There are a few calques from the languages of American Indians: 'pale-face' (бледнолицый); 'pipe of peace' (трубка мира); 'War¬path' (тропа войны); 'war-paint' (раскраска тела перед походом). <br />
They are mostly used figuratively.<br />
Calques from Russian are rather numerous. They are names of things and notions reflecting Soviet reality:<br />
'local Soviet' (местный совет);<br />
'self-criticism' (самокритика);<br />
'Labour-day' (трудодень);<br />
'individual peasant' (единоличник);<br />
'voluntary Sunday time' (воскресник). <br />
The last two are considered by N.N. Amosova to be oases of explana-tory translation.<br />
Semantic borrowing is the development of a new meaning by a word due to the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. the English word 'pioneer` meant `первооткрыватель` /now, under the influence of the Russian word 'пионер' it has come to mean 'член детской коммунистической организации'.<br />
Semantic loans are particularly frequent in related languages. For example, the Old English 'dwellan' (блуждать, медлить) developed into 'dwell` in Modern English and acquired the meaning 'жить' under the influence of the Old Norse 'dwelja' ('жить'). The words 'bread' ('кусок хлеба' in OE), 'dream' ('радость' in OE), 'plough' ('мера земли' in OE) received their present meanings from Old Norse.<br />
<br />
<b>Etymological Doublets.</b><br />
Etymological doublets are two or more words of the same lan¬guage which were derived by different routes from the same basic word, but differing in meaning and phonemic shape. For example, the word 'fact' ('факт, действительность') and 'feat' ('подвиг') are derived from the same Latin word 'facere' ('делать') but 'fact' was borrowed directly from Latin and 'feat' was borrowed through French.<br />
In modern English there are doublets of Latin, Germanic and na¬tive origin. Many Latin doublets are due to the different routes by which they entered the English vocabulary: some of the words are di¬rect borrowings; others came into English through Parisian French or Norman French.<br />
For example, the words 'major', 'pauper', senior' are direct bor¬rowings from Latin, while their doublets 'mayor' ('майор'), 'poor' ('бедный'), '.sir' ('сэр') came from French.<br />
The words 'chase' ('гнаться, преследовать'), 'chieftain' ('вождь/клана'), 'guard' ('охрана/стража') were borrowed into Mid¬dle English from Parisian French, and their doublets 'catch' ('поймать'), 'captain' ('капитан'), 'ward' ('палата/больничная') came from Norman French.<br />
The doublets 'shirt' ('рубашка') - 'skirt' ('юбка'), 'shrew' ('сварливая женщина') - 'screw' ('винт, шуруп'), 'schriek' ('вопить, кричать') - 'screech' ('пронзительно кричать') are of Germanic ori¬gin. The first word of the pair comes down from Old English whereas the second one is a Scandinavian borrowing.<br />
Examples of native doublets are 'shadow' ('тень') and 'shade! Both are derived from the same Old English word 'sceadu'. 'Shade' is developed from the Nominative case, 'sceadu' is derived from oblique ease 'sceadwe'. The words 'drag' and 'draw' both come from Old English 'dragan' ('тащить')<br />
Etymological doublets also arise as a result of shortening when both the shortened form and the full form of the word are used:<br />
'defense' - 'защита' - 'fence' - ''забор';<br />
'history' - 'история' - 'story' - 'рассказ'.<br />
Examples of ETYMOLOGICAL TRIPLETS (i.e. groups of three words of common root) are few in number:<br />
hospital (Lat.) - hostel (Norm.Fr.) - hotel (Par.. Fr.);<br />
to capture (Lat.) - to catch (Norm. Fr.) - to chase (Par. Fr.).<br />
<br />
<b>Morphemic Borrowings</b><br />
True borrowings should be distinguished from words made up of morphemes borrowed from Latin and Greek:<br />
E.g. telephone< tele ('far off) and phone ('sound').<br />
The peculiar character of the words of this type lies in the fact that they are produced by a word-building process operative in the English language, while the material used for this formation is bor¬rowed from «another language)).<br />
The word phonograph was coined in 1877 by Edison from the Greek morphemes phone ('sound')+grapho ('write*).<br />
Morphemic borrowings are mostly scientific and technical terms and international in character, the latter fact makes it difficult to deter¬mine whether the word was really coined within the vocabulary of English or not.<br />
<br />
<b>International Words</b><br />
Borrowings or loans are seldom limited to one language. «Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simulta¬neous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called INTERNATIONAL WORDS». (I. V. Arnold).<br />
Such words usually convey notions which are significant in the field of communication. Most of them are of Latin and Greek origin.<br />
Most scientists have international names; e.g. physics, chemistry, biol-ogy, linguistics, etc.<br />
Modern means of communication expand global contacts which result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary.<br />
International words play a very prominent part in various spheres of terminology, such as vocabulary of science, art, industry, etc. The great number of Italian words, connected with architecture, painting and music were borrowed into all the European languages and became international: arioso, baritone, allegro, concert, opera, etc.<br />
Examples of new or comparatively new words due to the progress of science illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: bion¬ics, genetic code, site, database, etc.<br />
The international word-stock has also grown due to the influx of exotic borrowed words like bungalow, pundit, sari, kraal, etc.<br />
The English language has also contributed a considerable number of international words to all the world languages. Among them the sports terms: football, hockey, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.<br />
International words should not be mixed with words of the com¬mon Indo-European stock that also comprise a sort of common fund of the European languages. Thus, one should not make a false conclusion that the English 'son', the German 'Sohn' and the Russian 'сын' are international words due to their outward similarity. They represent the Indo-European element in each of the three languages and they are COGNATES, i.e. words of the same etymological root and not borrowings.</fr.><br />
<fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""><br />
</fr.><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""><b>Practical</b></fr.></div><div style="text-align: left;"><fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""><b> Etymological Survey of the Modern English Language<br />
Exercise 1.</b><br />
State the etymology of the given words. Write them out in three columns: a) completely assimilated borrowings; b) partially assimilated borrowings; c) unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms.<br />
Torchère, wall, maharani, á la mode, datum, perestroika, gate, têtê-á- têtê, want, chalet, ad hoc, sheikh, parlando, nuclkeus, parquet, matter, bagel, á la carte, kettle, chauffeur, formula, pari-mutuel, shaman, finish, corps, alcazar, commedia dell’arte, money, souvenir, bacillus, pas de deux, ill, spahi, stratum, nota bene, spaghetti, ménage á trios, odd, memoir, parenthesis, hibakusha, padrona, incognito, thesis, coup de maitre, tzatziki, sabotage, ad libitum, stimulus, Soyuz, alameda, street, boulevard, criterion, déjà vu, torero, yin, Übermensch, macaroni, tzigane, sensu lato, hypothesis, bagh, pousada, shiatsu, shapka. <br />
<b><br />
Exercise 2.<br />
Write out international words from the given sentences:</b><br />
1. He gave a false address to the police. 2. I’ve seen so many good films lately. 3. Do you take sugar in your coffee? 4. Do you play tennis? 5. Arrange the words in alphabetical order. 6. Charlotte Bronte wrote under the pseudonym of Currer Bell. 7. He worked in radio for nearly 40 years. 8. Many people feel that their interests are not represented by mainstream politics. 9. We’ve visited the open-air theatre in London’s Regents Park. 10. I’m worried about my son’s lack of progress in English. 11. The government has promised to introduce reforms of the tax system. 12. He went on to study medicine at Edinburgh University. <br />
Exercise 3. <br />
Give the “false cognates” (false friends) in the Russian language to the given English words. State the difference in their meanings. <br />
Model: argument<br />
The false cognate of the word argument is Russian аргумент. The word argument means “an angry disagreement between people”, whereas the word аргумент has the meaning “reasoning”. <br />
Baton, order, to reclaim, delicate, intelligent, artist, sympathetic, fabric, capital, to pretend, romance. </fr.></div><div style="text-align: left;"><fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""><i>(I.V. Zykova. A practical course of English lexicology, 2006 )</i></fr.><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Video </b><br />
Melvyn Bragg travels through England and abroad to tell the story of the English language.<br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/o4c5v-cj2LA" width="420"></iframe><br />
<fr. <ohg="" a="" and="" another="" borrowing="" example="" french="" greek="" here="" is="" its="" kind="" of="" origin.="" papier<lat.="" papyros.="" papyrus<gr.="" peperi.<br="" pepper="" pfeffar<lat.="" piper<gr.="" source="" the="" this="" word=""><i> </i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></fr.></div></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-68127051133490567852011-12-25T07:19:00.000-08:002011-12-25T09:49:27.768-08:00Neologisms<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://writingxmu.wikispaces.com/file/view/neologism-logo-large.png/234324536/neologism-logo-large.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="65" src="http://writingxmu.wikispaces.com/file/view/neologism-logo-large.png/234324536/neologism-logo-large.png" width="320" /></a></div> A lecture on neologisms- their type, structure and formation. <br />
<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
Neologisms - Lecture<br />
<br />
Neologisms - Practical<br />
<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/lect1"><br />
</a><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><b>Lecture </b></div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">NEOLOGISMS</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is so called «neology blowup». R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four-volume supplement to NED says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of computerization.<br />
New words, as a rule, appear in speech of an individual person who wants to express his idea in some original way. This person is called «originater». New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers, newspaper reporters, by those who are connected with mass media.<br />
Neologisms can develop in three main ways: a lexical unit existing in the language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In such cases we have semantic neologisms, e.g. the word «umbrella» developed the meanings: «авиационное прикрытие», »политическое прикрытие». A new lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it. In such cases we have transnomination, e.g. the word «slum» was first substituted by the word «ghetto» then by the word-group «inner town». A new lexical unit can be introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have «a proper neologism», many of them are cases of new terminology.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Here we can point out several semantic groups when we analize the group of neologisms connected with computerization, and here we can mention words used: <br />
a) to denote different types of computers, e.g. PC, super-computer, multi-user, neurocomputer / analogue of a human brain/;<br />
b) to denote parts of computers, e.g. hardware, software, monitor, screen, data, vapourware / experimental samples of computers for exhibition, not for production/;<br />
c) to denote computer languages, e.g. BASIC, Algol FORTRAN etc;<br />
d) to denote notions connected with work on computers, e.g. computerman, computerization, computerize, to troubleshoot, to blitz out / to ruin data in a computer’s memory/. <br />
There are also different types of activities performed with the help of computers, many of them are formed with the help of the morpheme «tele», e.g. to telework, to telecommute / to work at home having a computer which is connected with the enterprise for which one works/. There are also such words as telebanking, telemarketing, teleshopping / when you can perform different operations with the help of your computer without leaving your home, all operations are registered by the computer at your bank/, videobank /computerized telephone which registers all information which is received in your absence/.<br />
In the sphere of lingusitics we have such neologisms as: machine translation, interlingual / an artificial language for machine translation into several languages / and many others.<br />
In the sphere of biometrics we have computerized machines which can recognize characteristic features of people seeking entrance : finger-print scanner / finger prints/, biometric eye-scanner / blood-vessel arrangements in eyes/, voice verification /voice patterns/. These are types of biometric locks. Here we can also mention computerized cards with the help of which we can open the door without a key.<br />
In the sphere of medicine computors are also used and we have the following neologisms: telemonitory unit / a telemonitory system for treating patience at a distance/. <br />
With the development of social activities neologisms appeared as well, e.g. youthquake - волнения среди молодежи, pussy-footer - политик, идущий на компромисы, Euromarket, Eurodollar, Europarliament, Europol etc. </div><div style="text-align: justify;">In the modern English society there is a tendency to social stratification, as a result there are neologisms in this sphere as well, e.g. belonger - представитель среднего класса, приверженец консервативных взглядов. To this group we can also refer abbreviations of the type yuppie /young urban professional people/, such as: muppie, gruppie, rumpie, bluppie etc. People belonging to the lowest layer of the society are called survivers, a little bit more prosperous are called sustainers, and those who try to prosper in life and imitate those, they want to belong to, are called emulaters. Those who have prospered but are not belongers are called achievers. All these layers of socety are called VAL /Value and Lifestyles/ . <br />
The rich belong also to jet set that is those who can afford to travel by jet planes all over the world enjoying their life. Sometimes they are called «jet plane travellers».<br />
During Margaret Thatcher’s rule the abbreviation PLU appeared which means «People like us» by which snobbistic circles of society call themselves. Nowadays /since 1989/ PLU was substituted by «one of us».<br />
There are a lot of immigrants now in UK , in connection with which neologisms partial and non-partial were formed /имеющие право жить в стране и его антоним/.<br />
The word-group «welfare mother» was formed to denote a non-working single mother living on benefit.<br />
In connection with criminalization of towns in UK volantary groups of assisting the police were formed where dwellers of the neighbourhood are joined. These groups are called «neighbourhood watch», «home watch». Criminals wear «stocking masks» not to be recognized.<br />
The higher society has neologisms in their speech, such as : dial-a-meal, dial-a-taxi.<br />
In the language of teen-agers there are such words as : Drugs! /OK/, sweat /бег на длинные дистанции/, task /home composition /, brunch etc.<br />
With the development of professional jargons a lot of words ending in «speak» appeared in English, e.g. artspeak, sportspeak, medspeak, education-speak, video-speak, cable-speak etc. <br />
There are different semantic groups of neologisms belonging to everyday life:<br />
a) food e.g. «starter»/ instead of «hors d’oevres»/, macrobiotics / raw vegetables, crude rice/ , longlife milk, clingfilm, microwave stove, consumer electronics, fridge-freezer, hamburgers /beef-, cheese-, fish-, veg- /.<br />
b) clothing, e.g. catsuit /one-piece clinging suit/, slimster , string / miniscule bikini/, hipster / trousers or skirt with the belt on hips/, completenik / a long sweater for trousers/, sweatnik /a long jacket/, pants-skirt, bloomers / lady’s sports trousers/. <br />
c) footwear e.g. winklepickers /shoes with long pointed toes/, thongs /open sandals/, backsters /beech sandals with thick soles/.<br />
d) bags, e.g. bumbag /a small bag worn on the waist/, sling bag /a bag with a long belt/, maitre / a small bag for cosmetics/.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">There are also such words as : dangledolly / a dolly-talisman dangling in the car before the windscreen/, boot-sale /selling from the boot of the car/, touch-tone /a telephone with press-button/. <br />
Neologisms can be also classified according to the ways they are formed. They are subdivided into : phonological neologisms, borrowings, semantic neologisms and syntactical neologisms. Syntactical neologisms are divided into morphological /word-building/ and phraseological /forming word-groups/.<br />
Phonological neologisms are formed by combining unique combinations of sounds, they are called artificial, e.g. rah-rah /a short skirt which is worn by girls during parades/, «yeck» /»yuck» which are interjections to express repulsion produced the adjective yucky/ yecky. These are strong neologisms.<br />
Strong neologisms include also phonetic borrowings, such as «perestroika» /Russian/, «solidarnosc» /Polish/, Berufsverbot / German /, dolce vita /Italian/ etc.<br />
Morphological and syntactical neologisms are usually built on patterns existing in the language, therefore they do not belong to the group of strong neologisms.<br />
Among morphological neologisms there are a lot of compound words of different types, such as «free-fall»-»резкое падение курса акций» appeared in 1987 with the stock market crash in October 1987 /on the analogy with free-fall of parachutists, which is the period between jumping and opening the chute/. Here also belong: call-and-recall - вызов на диспансеризацию, bioastronomy -search for life on other planets, rat-out - betrayal in danger , zero-zero (double zero) - ban of longer and shorter range weapon, x-rated /about films terribly vulgar and cruel/, Ameringlish /American English/, tycoonography - a biography of a business tycoon. <br />
There are also abbreviations of different types, such as resto, teen /teenager/, dinky /dual income no kids yet/, ARC /AIDS-related condition, infection with AIDS/, HIV / human immuno-deficiency virus/.<br />
Quite a number of neologisms appear on the analogy with lexical units existing in the language, e.g. snowmobile /automobile/, danceaholic /alcoholic/, airtel /hotel/, cheeseburger /hamburger/, autocade / cavalcade/. <br />
There are many neologisms formed by means of affixation, such as: decompress, to disimprove, overhoused, educationalist, slimster, folknik etc. Phraseological neologisms can be subdivided into phraseological units with transferred meanings, e.g. to buy into/ to become involved/, fudge and dudge /avoidance of definite decisions/, and set non-idiomatic expressions, e.g. electronic virus, Rubic’s cube, retail park, acid rain , boot trade etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Changes in pronunciation.<br />
In Modern British English there is a tendency to change pronunciation of some sounds and combinations of sounds due to the influence of American English and some other factors. These changes are most noticeable in the speech of teachers and students of the universities in the Southern part of England /Oxford, Cambridge, London/. <br />
There are the following changes in pronouncing vowels:<br />
a) shortening of long vowels, especially at the end of the word and before voiceless consonants, e.g. see, keep;<br />
b) lengthening of short vowels before voiced consonants, e.g. big, good, come, jam etc. In such adjectives which end in /d/ lengthening of the vowel is observed all over England, e.g. bad, sad, glad, mad etc. <br />
c) drawling of stressed syllables and clipping of unstressed syllables.<br />
d) In unstressed syllables / / is pronounced instead of / i /, e.g. /b `ko:z/, /`evid ns/ etc. <br />
e) In the words consisting of three or more syllables there is a tendency to have two main stresses,e.g. /`nes `s ri/, /`int `restin/.<br />
f) The diphthong /ou/ is pronounced / u/,e.g. home /h um/, go /g u/.<br />
g) the diphthong / u / is pronounced /o:/, e.g. sure /sho:/.<br />
Vowels can also change under the influence of consonants:<br />
a) after fricatives and consonants /n/ and /m/ /ju:/ is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. resume, music, news, enthusiasm.<br />
<br />
<br />
b) before fricatives and combinations of fricatives with consonants «a« is pronounced as / /, e.g. dance, answer, class, fast.<br />
The pronunciation of some consonants is also changed :<br />
a) after a vowel /r/ is pronounced ,e.g. /ka:r/ , /ha:rt/.<br />
b)There appears an intrusive /r/ in the combinations where after the final vowel / / there is a vowel at the beginning of the next word, e.g. the idea of, Asia and Europe/ on the analogy with word combinations there is, there are/.<br />
c) /p/ and /t/ are glotalized in the middle of the word,e.g. matter is pronounced as /`m ? /, happy as /`h ? i/.<br />
d) /s/ is used instead of /sh/ before /i/ in the structure of suffixes, e.g. social /`sousi l/, negotiate / ni`gousi,eit/;<br />
e) /l/ is vocalized at the end of the word, e.g. full/ ful/( close to /v/ in sound).<br />
f) /sh/ is voiced in the intervocal position in some geographical names, e.g . «Asia», «Persia»;<br />
g) combinations of sounds /dj/, /tj/ , /sj/ in such words as duke, tube, issue have two variants of pronunciation: /d3u:k/ and /dju:k/, /chu:b/ and /tju:b/, /`ishu:/ and /`isju:/;<br />
g) pronunciation approaching spelling is being developed, e.g. often /`oftn/, forehead / fo:`hed/ etc; <br />
h) /t/ and/d/ at the end of words are not pronounced, e.g. «half past five’ /`ha:f `pa:s`faiv/, «old man» /`oul `m n/.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><i>(E.M. Dubenets, English lexicology)</i><br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><b>Links:</b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: left;"><b><a href="http://englishlexicology.blogspot.com/2011/11/neologisms.html">Read and remember the following neilogisms.</a> <br />
</b></div><a href="http://www.blogger.com/name=" pract1"=""><br />
</a><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"></div><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><b>Practical</b></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Task 1.</b><br />
Match the neologisms with their definitions: </div><div style="text-align: center;"><b> </b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-9dZCjVeBa28/Tvc9svE11II/AAAAAAAAABQ/LJliasz8D7w/s1600/tab1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="370" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-9dZCjVeBa28/Tvc9svE11II/AAAAAAAAABQ/LJliasz8D7w/s400/tab1.jpg" width="446" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
<br />
<b>Task 2.</b><br />
Define the following neologisms:</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
<b>dangledolly </b>– (e.g. She gave him a dangledolly as a present, and he immediately put it into his car for luck);<br />
<b> boot-sale;</b><br />
<b>zero-zero (double zero)</b> – (e.g. The SALT treaty established zero-zero between the two global leaders and promoted nuclear nonproliferation);<br />
<b>x-rated </b> - (e.g. Finally ‘Old Boy’ was x-rated in Europe);<br />
<b> tycoonography;</b><br />
<b> to buy into</b>- (e.g. How could he buy into this doubtful affair?);<br />
<b> fudge and dudge</b> – (e.g. During the war in Iraq the US government stuck to fudge and dudge, which resulted in complete stalemate);<br />
<b> bioastronomy </b>–(e.g. Researchers in the field of bioastronomy wonder if there is life on other planets).</div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
<b>Task 3. </b></div><div style="text-align: left;">Watch the video on neologisms and write out the new words mentioned.</div><div style="text-align: left;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/hBJgBlyK7_g" width="560"></iframe></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
</div><br />
</div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-30176619986559317012011-11-22T08:41:00.001-08:002011-11-22T08:45:16.721-08:00The Longman Vocabulary Test<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><a href="http://wps.ablongman.com/long_licklider_vocabulary_2/4/1104/282760.cw/index.html"></a><br />
Hello, my lexicology 3-rd year students! <br />
Please follow the link of The Longman Vocabulary Website,<a href="http://wps.ablongman.com/long_licklider_vocabulary_2/4/1104/282760.cw/index.html%20" target="_blank">http://wps.ablongman.com/long_licklider_vocabulary_2/4/1104/282760.cw/index.html </a><br />
take an intermediate level test on synonyms and antonyms and e-mail me your results!<br />
NO dictionary or supporting materials (or a smarty-pants nearby)!<br />
Good luck!</div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-82245611264600577102011-11-20T04:48:00.003-08:002011-11-20T04:48:36.964-08:00The history of English lexicography<div style="width:425px" id="__ss_10241020"><strong style="display:block;margin:12px 0 4px"><a href="http://www.slideshare.net/Lenochka83/lexicography-2011" title="Lexicography 2011" target="_blank">Lexicography 2011</a></strong> <iframe src="http://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/embed_code/10241020" width="425" height="355" frameborder="0" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no"></iframe> <div style="padding:5px 0 12px">View more <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/" target="_blank">presentations</a> from <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/Lenochka83" target="_blank">Lenochka83</a> </div></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-91697385982508211722011-11-20T04:22:00.003-08:002011-11-20T04:25:39.756-08:00Word formation<div style="width:425px" id="__ss_1480153"><strong style="display:block;margin:12px 0 4px"><a href="http://www.slideshare.net/acostaena/lexicology-ii-wordformation" title="Lexicology Ii Wordformation" target="_blank">Lexicology Ii Wordformation</a></strong> <iframe src="http://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/embed_code/1480153" width="425" height="355" frameborder="0" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no"></iframe> <div style="padding:5px 0 12px">View more <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/" target="_blank">presentations</a> from <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/acostaena" target="_blank">acostaena</a> </div></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-57929982252881617812011-11-13T07:54:00.000-08:002011-11-13T07:56:51.722-08:00MY NEW DICTIONARY CAT<a href="http://s1189.photobucket.com/albums/z433/elena832/?action=view&current=dictionary_cat.jpg" target="_blank"><img src="http://i1189.photobucket.com/albums/z433/elena832/dictionary_cat.jpg" border="0" alt="Photobucket"></a><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
</div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-74193134452138056282011-11-12T10:58:00.000-08:002011-11-12T10:58:26.869-08:00NEOLOGISMS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>RU</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Neologism</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> is a term which refers to any new lexical unit the novelty of which is still felt. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Here are some examples of neologisms which might be interesting for you to know:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Carpocalypse </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">n. The financial devastation being wreaked upon the global automotive industry. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">"I don't think General Motors will survive the carpocalypse." </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(<span class="slideauthor">David M. Ewalt</span>. New Words For 2009)</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiTYOwhPcz_4FwE4J6Cg5bIzVybHepAW_IfkiZqyvnhF21e_u8-pS948mfMPJ3V-RZ64J2eLzcqiwwOJ7FI3eH5CMeYLcKTfPrE5_WDqSli-MIoyOHRDcgtO5NT2Iw3dvJN-iFi73h8HcE/s1600/4564564.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiTYOwhPcz_4FwE4J6Cg5bIzVybHepAW_IfkiZqyvnhF21e_u8-pS948mfMPJ3V-RZ64J2eLzcqiwwOJ7FI3eH5CMeYLcKTfPrE5_WDqSli-MIoyOHRDcgtO5NT2Iw3dvJN-iFi73h8HcE/s320/4564564.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Dixie-Chicked</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><br />
<i>a. </i>to suffer economic loss by alienating a constituency "We don't want to get <i>dixie-chicked</i>. We've invested millions of dollars in the movie."<br />
(Dreamworks executive, 2003)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><a name='more'></a><br />
<br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"></span></div><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Bouncebackability</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><br />
"Footballers . . . are adept at coining <b>neologisms</b>, if only because they're not adept at using proper words. In 2004, Iain Dowie, the then manager of Crystal Palace, conjured the term <i>bouncebackability</i> to denote . . .. Ah, you are ahead of me. Anyway, it entered the <i>Collins English Dictionary</i> the following year."<br />
(Michael Deacon, "The Dictionary Needs to Scrax and Polkadodge." <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>, Aug. 6, 2010)</span><br />
<h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Intrapreneur </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">n. A person who focuses on innovative entrepreneurial development within a large company </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"Jill is worried about getting laid off, so she's become a real intrapreneur, launching three new products in three months." </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(<span class="slideauthor">David M. Ewalt</span>. New Words For 2009)</span></div><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Moziloville </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">n. the tent cities springing up across California (named for Angelo Mozilo, former Countrywide CEO) </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"After he defaulted on his mortgage, Bill had to move into a Moziloville." </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(<span class="slideauthor">David M. Ewalt</span>. New Words For 2009)</span></div><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Obamanation </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">n. Used by critics of the current U.S. president to describe particularly disliked government initiatives. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"Have you heard about the latest Obamanation? Bailout funds for unemployed seal-clubbers." </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(<span class="slideauthor">David M. Ewalt</span>. New Words For 2009)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Pregorexia </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">n. Excessive skinniness during a period of pregnancy. Frequently displayed by Hollywood celebrities. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">"Did you see her on the red carpet at the Oscars? It looks like she has a serious case of pregorexia." </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(<span class="slideauthor">David M. Ewalt</span>. New Words For 2009)</span></div><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Twitterati </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">n. The most read and most influential users of microblogging service Twitter. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"Speculating on Steve Job's health is all the rage among the Twitterati." </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(<span class="slideauthor">David M. Ewalt</span>. New Words For 2009)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><em><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal;">Moofing</span></b></em><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">,</span></i></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"> from "mobile out of office," meaning working on the go with a laptop and cellphone.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(Words Of The Year.<span class="slideauthor"> American Dialect Society)</span></span></div><br />
<strong><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal;">S</span></i></strong><em><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal;">hovel-ready</span></b></em><em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">,</span></em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"> used to describe infrastructure projects that can be started quickly when funds become available.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(Words Of The Year.<span class="slideauthor"> American Dialect Society)</span></span></div><br />
<em><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal;">Phish,</span></b></em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"> to induce someone to reveal private information by means of deceptive e-mail.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(Words Of The Year.<span class="slideauthor"> American Dialect Society)</span></span></div><br />
<em><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal;">P</span></b></em><em><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal;">ajamahadeen,</span></b></em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"> a blend of the words "pajamas" and "Mujahideen," a group of bloggers who challenge and fact-check traditional media.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(Words Of The Year.<span class="slideauthor"> American Dialect Society)</span></span></div><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Facestalk </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">v. Using Facebook to obsessively check up on ex-spouses, high-school flames and college sweethearts. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"Lisa is totally facestalking John. She must check his 'wall' like seven times a day!" </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">(<span class="slideauthor">Michael Noe.</span> Eight New Words We'd Like To See)</span><br />
<h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Obamniscient </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">adj. Believing the new American president is all-knowing on all topics, as witnessed by his expressed opinions on everything from executive pay to who would win the men's NCAA basketball tournament. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"The president's Final Four picks were Obamniscient." </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">(<span class="slideauthor">Michael Noe.</span> Eight New Words We'd Like To See)</span><br />
<h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Raqtigue </span></h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">n. Extreme weariness of news from Iraq and Afghanistan after six years of nonstop suicide bombings and cross-border incursions into Pakistan. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">"David is suffering from a serious case of raqtigue. He refuses to read the newspaper anymore." </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">(<span class="slideauthor">Michael Noe.</span> Eight New Words We'd Like To See)</span><br />
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</style> <![endif]--> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14pt;">A politically correct fairy tale by Jim Garner – another bit on political correctness:</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Little Red Riding Hood - A Politically Correct Fairy Tale</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgawDc8LAg7gCN29jrbJANJ35uy500UcEF2QqvM60bsKXWIeJjhqGZs1ONEX-OngSQuSa07FmtHwWPkQKOcgqpPhRQDQhFQCLcpwyMJ-l9iOAwzmGXj1H_5yrBYUFKfCvcWHukKJt8GaSOs/s1600/12_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgawDc8LAg7gCN29jrbJANJ35uy500UcEF2QqvM60bsKXWIeJjhqGZs1ONEX-OngSQuSa07FmtHwWPkQKOcgqpPhRQDQhFQCLcpwyMJ-l9iOAwzmGXj1H_5yrBYUFKfCvcWHukKJt8GaSOs/s320/12_.jpg" width="229" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 13.5pt;">There once was a young person named Red Riding Hood who lived with her mother on the edge of a large wood. One day her mother asked her to take a basket of fresh fruit and mineral water to her grandmother's house -- not because this was womyn's work, mind you, but because the deed was generous and helped engender a feeling of community. Furthermore, her grandmother was not sick, but rather was in full physical and mental health and was fully capable of taking care of herself as a mature adult.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><br />
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So Red Riding Hood set off with her basket of food through the woods. Many people she knew believed that the forest was a foreboding and dangerous place and never set foot in it. Red Riding Hood, however, was confident...<br />
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On her way to Grandma's house, Red Riding Hood was accosted by a Wolf, who asked her what was in her basket. She replied, "Some healthful snacks for my grandmother, who is certainly capable of taking care of herself as a mature adult."<br />
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The Wolf said, "You know, my dear, it isn't safe for a little girl to walk through these woods alone."<br />
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Red Riding Hood said, "I find your sexist remark offensive in the extreme, but I will ignore it because of your traditional status as an outcast from society, the stress of which has caused you to develop your own, entirely valid worldview. Now, if you'll excuse me, I must be on my way."<br />
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Red Riding Hood walked on along the main path. But, because his status outside society had freed him from slavish adherence to linear, Western-style thought, the Wolf knew of a quicker route to Grandma's house. He burst into the house and ate Grandma, an entirely valid course of action for a carnivore such as himself. Then, unhampered by rigid, traditionalist notions of what was masculine or feminine, he put on grandma's nightclothes and crawled into bed.<br />
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Red Riding Hood entered the cottage and said, "Grandma, I have brought you some fat-free, sodium-free snacks to salute you in your role of a wise and nurturing matriarch."<br />
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From the bed, the Wolf said softly, "Come closer, child, so that I might see you."<br />
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Red Riding Hood said, "Oh, I forgot you are as optically challenged as a bat. Grandma, what big eyes you have!"<br />
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"They have seen much, and forgiven much, my dear."<br />
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"Grandma, what a big nose you have -- only relatively, of course, and certainly attractive in its own way."<br />
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"It has smelled much, and forgiven much, my dear."<br />
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"Grandma, what big teeth you have!"<br />
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The Wolf said, "I am happy with and what I am," and leaped out of bed. He grabbed Red Riding Hood in his claws, intent on devouring her. Red Riding Hood screamed, not out of alarm at the Wolf's apparent tendency toward cross-dressing, but because of his willful invasion of her personal space.<br />
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Her screams were heard by a passing woodchopper-person (or log-fuel technician, as he preferred to be called). When he burst into the cottage, he saw the melee and tried to intervene. But as he raised his ax, Red Riding and the Wolf both stopped.<br />
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"And what do you think you're doing?" asked Red Riding Hood.<br />
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The woodchopper-person blinked and tried to answer, but no words came to him.<br />
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"Bursting in here like a Neanderthal, trusting your weapon to do your thinking for you!" she said. "Sexist! Speciesist! How dare you assume that womyn and wolves can't solve their own problems without a man's help!"<br />
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When she heard Red Riding Hood's speech, Grandma jumped out of the mouth, took the woodchopper-person's axe, and cut his head off. After this ordeal, Red Riding Hood, Grandma, and the Wolf felt a certain commonality of purpose. They decided to set up an alternative household based on mutual respect and cooperation, and they lived together in the woods happily ever after. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div></m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-68580753038963872242011-11-10T10:55:00.000-08:002011-11-10T11:11:11.086-08:00EUPHEMISMS AND POLITICAL CORRECTNESS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent> </m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac><br />
<div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">Read the following theoretical passage on euphemisms:</span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white;"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">EUPHEMISMS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;"></span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin: 0cm 3.25pt 0.0001pt 0.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 15.25pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">A source of synonymy also well worthy of note is the so-called euphemism in which by a shift of meaning a word of more or less ‘pleasant or at least inoffensive connotation becomes synonymous to one that is harsh, obscene, indelicate or otherwise unpleasant. The euphemistic expression <i>merry </i>fully coincides in denotation with the word <i>drunk </i>it substitutes, but the connotations of the latter fade out and so the utterance on the whole is milder, less offensive. The effect is achieved, because the periphrastic expression is not so harsh, sometimes jocular and usually motivated according to some secondary feature of the notion: <i>naked </i>: : <i>in one’s birthday suit] pregnant </i>: : <i>in the family way. </i>Very often a learned word which sounds less familiar is therefore less offensive, as in <i>drunkenness </i>: : <i>intoxication; sweat </i>: : <i>perspiration. </i></span></div><br />
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<div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin: 0cm 2.65pt 0.0001pt 2.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.75pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">Euphemisms can also be treated within the synchronic approach, because both expressions, the euphemistic and the direct one, co-exist in the language and form a synonymic opposition. Not only English but other modern languages as well have a definite set of notions attracting euphemistic circumlocutions. These are notions of death, madness, stupidity, drunkenness, certain physiological processes, crimes and so on. For example: <i>die : : be no more </i>: : <i>be gone : </i>: <i>lose one’s life : : breathe one’s last : : join the silent majority </i>: : <i>go the way of alt flesh </i>: : <i>pass away </i>: : <i>be gathered to one’s fathers.</i></span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin: 0cm 1.9pt 0.0001pt 4.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 15.1pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">A prominent source of synonymic attraction is still furnished by interjections and swearing addressed to God. To make use of God’s name is considered sinful by the Church and yet the word, being expressive, formed the basis of many interjections. Later the word <i>God </i>was substituted by the phonetically similar word <i>goodness: For goodness sake\ Goodness gracious] Goodness knows! </i>Cf. <i>By Jovel Good Lord! By Gum! </i>As in:</span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin-left: 20.65pt;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">His father made a fearful row.</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;"></span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin-left: 20.75pt;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">He said: “By Gum, you’ve done it now.” </span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">(Belloc)</span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin: 0cm 1.3pt 0.0001pt 5.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.65pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">A certain similarity can be observed in the many names for the devil <i>(deuce, Old Nick). </i>The point may be illustrated by an example from Burns’s “Address to the Devil":</span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin-left: 22.3pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">О <i>thou! Whatever title suit thee,</i></span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin-left: 21.95pt;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">Auld Hornie, Satan, Nick, or Clootie </span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">...</span></div><div class="Normal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; margin: 0cm 0.1pt 0.0001pt 6.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 15.6pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 11pt;">Euphemisms always tend to be a source of new synonymic formations, because after a short period of use the new term becomes so closely connected with the notion that it turns into a word as obnoxious as the earlier synonym.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-GB">(I.V. Arnold, from “The English Word”)</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">According to Writing English, the enthusiastic adoption in recent years of what is euphemistically termed political correctness has been responsible for creating many euphemisms. Similarly, many occupational fields, such as social work, nursing, and medicine, have spawned new terms that effectively mask or change the meaning of those that they replace. Here is a selection of commonly used euphemisms. (source: http://www.writingenglish.com/euphemism.htm). </span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Administrative Assistant</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an important sounding name for secretary </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">take under advisement</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a pompous term for consider </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">air support</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a more pleasant sounding term for bombing and strafing </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">altogether</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - naked </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">expecting</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - pregnant. The term replaces the connection to impregnate with expect. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">antipersonnel weapon</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - any weapon designed to kill people. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">appropriate</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - seize, steal A term that removes any guilt or disgrace for wrongdoing. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">athletic supporter</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - jock strap. The neutral term removes any imagery conjured up by jock strap or locker room. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">author</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - writer </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">body count</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - dead body count. An inoffensive term for the number of deaths suffered </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">break off hostilities (or contact from the enemy)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - retreat The euphemism removes any shame or disgrace. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">capital punishment</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an impersonal term for execution </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">casualty</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - victim </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">comfort station</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - public toilet </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">confidential source</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an informer </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">consultant</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an advisor </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">correctional facility</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - prison </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">covert operation</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - burglary, assassination, or any illegal operation carried out surreptitiously </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">custodian</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - janitor </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">deep six</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to destroy evidence </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">deliver ordnance</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - drop bombs (on) or fire missiles (at) </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">dentures</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - false teeth </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">detainee</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a term that differs in meaning from what it replaces, namely prisoner </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">disadvantaged</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - poor. This politically correct term removes any need for personal responsibility for finding oneself in that state. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">dispatch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - kill </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">downward adjustment</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - corporate doubletalk for a reduction </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Dutch treat</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - hardly a treat as it means that each pays his or her share </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">effluent</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - sewage </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erratum</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a term for error. It is used by those who find it difficult to admit that their work contains errors. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erroneous report</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - doubletalk for a lie </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">euthanize</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - kill (a person who is sick, senile, etc.) </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">expire</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to die </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">extramarital</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - adulterous </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">fabrication</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a lie </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">f<b>amily way (in a)</b> - pregnant </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">flight attendant</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a politically correct for what was formerly stewardess </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">foundation garment</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a girdle or corset </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">free world</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - All friends of the United States </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">friendly fire</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a military term to denote an attack on oneself or one's forces by one's own forces or allies </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">gay</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a word that has been hijacked to mean homosexual </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">golden years</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - old age </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">halitosis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - bad breath </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">handyman's special</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a word in real estate for a house that is in great need of repair </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">harvest</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - kill, a word used in the context of killing seals, whales, or other mammals. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">It minimizes ages and any sense of guilt </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">head</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a yachting or boating term for toilet</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">homemaker </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">- housewife </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">homicide</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - murder </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Imbibe </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">- to drink (alcohol) </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">indisposed</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - sick </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">inoperative</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - false. A statement that is inoperative is a lie. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">journalist</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a newspaper or magazine reporter </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">liberate</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - often used with a straight face for conquer </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">lingerie</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - women's underwear </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">little boys' room</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - toilet </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">loss</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - death. A term used in reference to the death of someone who was close </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">love child</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - bastard </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">meaningful dialogue</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - conversation </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">mixed breed</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - mongrel </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">mobile home</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - trailer </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">monument</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - tombstone or other grave marker </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">not doing well</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - dying </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">outhouse</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - outdoor toilet </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">outplacement</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - finding a job for the employee for the fired employee </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">over flight</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an illegal flight into the airspace of another country </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">pass away</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to die </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">plausible denial</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - official lying </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">police action</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a war not sanctioned by Congress </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">pre-emptive strike</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a surprise (sneak) attack </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">prevaricate</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to lie </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">previously owned</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - second hand, used. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">prosthesis</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an artificial hand, leg, or other human part </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">public relations</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - activities designed to elicit a favorable public attitude towards a corporation, institution, product, or service </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">put down/put to sleep</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to kill (an animal) </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">reconnaissance in force</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - search and destroy </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">remains</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a dead body </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">reverse engineering</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - corporate doubletalk for copy </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">sacrifice</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to kill in the name of science or religion, etc. (e.g., to sacrifice laboratory animals) </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">sanitize</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to destroy evidence </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">secure facility</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an escape-proof jail or prison </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">senior citizen </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">- old person </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">sensitive</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - secret. A term applied to documents, often those that constitute evidence of wrong doing </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">sight-deprived</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - blind </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">slack fill</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - corporate doubletalk for partially empty </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">social disease</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - venereal disease </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">source of information</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - informant or spy </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">special</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - handicapped </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">stonewall</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - to obstruct justice. To admit nothing, deny, cover up </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">surreptitious entry</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - an illegal break-in </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">surveillance</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - spying </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">white lie</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> - a lie, although supposedly harmless </span></li>
</ul><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">Thus, should politically correct expressions replace the “colonial stereotypes” in children’s books that some experts call “racist”? Read the article from The Guardian “Pippi Longstocking books charged with racism” <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2011/nov/09/pippi-longstocking-books-racism" target="_blank">http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2011/nov/09/pippi-longstocking-books-racism</a>. Do you agree with Dr Eske Wollrad? Should we follow the Zeitgeist of political correctness?</span></h1><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">Watch the video from Russia Today which dwells upon the similar issue:</span></h1><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/CqVP-LOP4x4?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div><h1><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></h1></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6473986793380581150.post-34904558484413135712011-11-05T08:58:00.000-07:002011-11-05T08:58:01.579-07:00English Lexicology for Students and All<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>RU</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> <w:UseFELayout/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]--> <div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">This blog is about lexicology – the branch of linguistics dealing with English words, vocabulary, its subdivisions and main features. EFL students taking the course on English lexicology are cordially invited, as well as all those who would like to get some information about English word-building, semantics, synonyms and antonyms, archaisms and neologisms, phraseology, lexicography, the etymology of English words, and many other interesting topics. </span></div><div> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">I’m a teacher and words are my best friends. The more you learn about words the more you want to explore their power. What I like about lexicology is that you get to know the “inner mechanisms” that help you master the language, understand the logics (or illogicality!) of word building, and how the communication system works. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.konferencii.ru/uploads/logos/e56937847ddac4835af761ea752b602b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.konferencii.ru/uploads/logos/e56937847ddac4835af761ea752b602b.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">So, if you want to know what “prehensible” is, tell the difference between a pot-flower and a flower-pot, and why a hamburger is more about a German city that food, join in! <span> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Welcome to read, study and share!<span> </span></span></div></m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac></div>Elenahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17355286641484253140noreply@blogger.com0